Jumping beans are phenomenal seeds of maxican shrubs of the genus sebastiana containing the larva of a moth whose movements cause the bean to jerk or tumble. Physically, jumping beans resemble small Tan to brown beans. Jumping beans jumping ability is not caused by the beans themselves. Instead it’s an insect called the bean moth that creates this phenomenon. The moth lays its eggs around a bean flower or in the see pod of the spurge. Then the egg will hatch within the shell and a caterpillar or larva will be living within the shell. Then, when the bean is exposed to heat, it becomes annoyed and starts jumping.

source: GEO JUNIOR , June 2010

Canned food was introduce in 1812 for the first time at Bermondsey in England by Bryan Donkin. Donkin and his partners started supplying tinned meats and soups to the royal Navy as well as to the royal family from their first cannery in England. Donkin’s involvement in papermaking fostered * his subsequent interest in printing technology. In 1813 he patented one of the first rotary presses. Although the machine itself was a failure, the composition rollers made of glue and treacle were an important innovation widely adopted by the industry. Donkin was a founder of the Institution of Civil Engineers and an avid amateur astronomer too.  

source: GEO JUNIOR , June 2010

The antipodes of any place on the Earth is the place that is diametrically opposite it, so a line drawn from the one to the other passes through the centre of the Earth and forms a true diameter. In other words, the latitude is numerically equal, but one is north and the other south. The antipodes of New Zealand’s lower North Island lies in Spain. Most of the Earth’s land surfaces have ocean at their antipodes, this being a consequence of most land being in the land hemisphere. NOON at the one place is midnight at the other and the longest day at one point correspond to the shortest day at the other.

source: GEO JUNIOR , June 2010

It was European explorer David Livingstone, who first saw the Victoria Falls on 17 November 1855. He noticed this canal during his 1852-1856 journey from the upper Zambezi to the mouth of the river. These falls lie on the Zambezi River, which forms the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe. Victoria Falls can be seen from 25 to 40 miles away, and see its spray rising 1,000 feet into the air from seven miles away! Livingstone reached the fall from upriver and rowed across to a small island that now bears the name Livingstone Island. Livingstone named this falls after Queen Victoria.   

source: GEO JUNIOR , June 2010

Due to their impressive bulk, mountains are often considered to be symbols of permanence. But how long can a mountain really exist, given the steady erosion of its rock and soil? We can figure this out with a little math and a few approximations. The overall problem solving strategy is to estimate the size of a typical mountain, to estimate how much material erodes from it per unit time, and then to divide the size of the mountain by its rate of erosion.

To estimate the volume of a mountain, approximate its shape as a rectangular box. Mountains come in an array of size and shapes, but a box 3 km long, 2 km wide and 5 km high would give us the approximate volume of an average mountain:

Volume = length *width*height
= 3 km* 2 km * 5 km = 30 km3

Expressing this in standard units of meters, we have

Volume = (3000m) * (2000m) * (5000m)
= 3.0 * 1010 m3.
Now estimate how much rock, sand, and gravel are eroded in a typical day. This would vary according to the kinds of rock that are present, the amount of precipitation, and other factors. But an average mountain could have four principal streams, and each one could easily carry a tenth of a cubic meter of material off the mountain per day. This is a conservative estimate-a tenth of a cubic meter is a box about a foot and a half on each side, about the size of a kitchen sink. So the estimated rate of erosion per day would be:

Rate of erosion per day = (0.1 m3/stream-day) * (4 streams)
= 0.4 m3/day

From this, we can calculate the rate of erosion per year:

Rate of erosion per year = (0.4 m3/day)*(365 days/year)
= 146 m3/year

Divide the volume of the mountain by the rate at which it is worn away in a year to find out how long it can last:

Duration of a mountain = (3.0 * 1010 m3)/ (146 m3/year)
= 2.05 * 108 years = 205 million years.

Thus, a typical mountain would exist only about two hundred million years, even given a conservative estimate of the rate of erosion. Compared with the age of the Earth, which is 4.5 billion years, mountains are young features with short lifetimes.

source:Conceptual Integrated Science (HEWLIT,LYONS,SUCHOCKI,YEH)

Continental drift is not just deduced from evidence- it can be directly measured. The very long Baseline Interferometry System (VLBI), for example, was the first system to directly measure the relative motion of Earth’s tectonic plates and continents. The VLBI used radio telescopes to detect and record radio signals emitted from quasars. Quasars are so far from Earth (billions of light-years away) that they are virtually point link. Their radio emissions, therefore, can be used like a surveyor’s beam from a stationary source. The same signal form a quasar arrives at slightly different times at different measuring sites. So, when the VLBI tracked changes in the arrival time of radio signals over a period of years, it showed the rate of movement of the sites relative to each other.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is currently used to measure the relative motion of different points on Earth. Because GPS results agree with the VLBI results, they provide a cross-check. The GPS system consists of twenty or so satellites that orbit the Earth at an altitude of 20,000 Km. These satellites transmit signals back to Earth continuously. Scientists at ground stations around the world use the signals to pinpoint their position in terms of latitude, longitude, and altitude .Scientists repeatedly measures locations of ground stations, monitor change in their relatives positions, and thus track continental movement.

The different measurements of continental drift agree with one another and with theoretical predictions. For example, results show that Hawaii is moving in a northwesterly direction towards Japan at a rate of 8.3 centimeters per year. Maryland is moving away from England at a rate of 1.7 centimeters per year.

source:Conceptual Integrated Science (HEWLIT,LYONS,SUCHOCKI,YEH)

We see electromagnetic induction all around us. On the road, we see it operate when we drive over buried coils of wire to activate a nearby traffic light. When iron parts of a car move over the buried coils, the effect of Earth’s magnetic field is changed, inducing a voltage to trigger the changing of the traffic lights. Similarly, when you walk through the upright coils in the security system at an airport, any metal you carry slightly alters the magnetic field in the coils. This change induces voltage, which sounds an alarm. When the magnetic strip on the back of a credit card is scanned, induced voltage pulses identity the card. Something similar occurs in the recording head of a tape recorder” magnetic domains in the tape are sensed as the tape moves past a current-carrying coil. Electromagnetic induction is everywhere.

source:Conceptual Integrated Science (HEWLIT,LYONS,SUCHOCKI,YEH)

Climate Change is the change in climate over a time period that ranges from decades to centuries. The term refers to both natural and human-induced changes. The term “climate variability” refers to shorter term (years to decades) fluctuations in climate such as those caused by El Niño/Southern Oscillation.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change defines climate change as: “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods”. In other words, the FCCC uses the term Climate Change to mean only those changes that are brought about by human activities.

Factors Affecting Global Climate: There are many factors, both natural and of human origin, that determine the climate of the Earth.

Greenhouse Gases A number of minor gases in the atmosphere, although relatively transparent to sunlight, absorb most of the infrared heat energy transmitted by the Earth towards space. This phenomenon has been called the “greenhouse effect” and the absorbing gases that cause it “greenhouse gases”. Important greenhouse gases include: water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and halocarbons.

Climate Trends An analysis of temperature records shows that the Earth has warmed an average of 0.5°C over the past 100 years. The warming is real and significant though its intensity has varied from decade to decade, from region to region and from season to season.

The retreat of glaciers since 1850, worldwide and rapid, affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use, mountain recreation, animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt, and in the longer term, the level of the oceans. Studied by glaciologists, the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of anthropogenic (human-caused) global warming. Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas, Alps, Rocky Mountains, Cascade Range, and the southern Andes, as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa, are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial loss.

The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present. Subsequently, until about 1940, glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed. Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed, in many cases, between 1950 and 1980 as a slight global cooling occurred. However, since 1980 a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous, so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether, and the existence of a great number of the remaining glaciers of the world is threatened. In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia, the demise of glaciers in these regions will have potential impact on water supplies. The retreat of mountain glaciers, notably in western North America, Asia, the Alps, Indonesia and Africa, and tropical and subtropical regions of South America, has been used to provide qualitative evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century.The recent substantial retreat and an acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of a number of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, may foreshadow a rise in sea level, having a potentially dramatic effect on coastal regions worldwide.

source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850

Indian mega cities are among the most air polluted cities in the world and paying heavy health and economic price for it.

Urbanization is a global phenomenon experienced by economically advanced as well as developing countries. Rapid population growth, industrialization, urbanization, crowded housing conditions, inadequate civic amenities and solid waste mismanagement in mega cities are adversely affecting the environment. More than one fourth of Indian population is living in cities, out of which nearly one fifth is residing in four mega cities. With the increasing urbanization the transport demand has also increased consequently. Rapid and uncontrolled growth of population and the unplanned growth of mega cities in India have led to increasing slums, vehicular traffic and air pollution. Automobile exhaust is a significant source of air pollution. The mega cities of India are affected by environmental problems, not the least of which is deteriorating air quality. This leads to an increase in the air pollution levels and have adverse effects on the health of people. The air quality guidelines of World Health Organization (WHO) are regularly being exceeded in Indian mega cities. Indian mega cities are among the most air polluted cities in the world and paying heavy health and economic price for it.

Air pollution in mega cities is one of the greatest menaces to the health of people. The considerable magnitude of air pollution pulls up the number of people suffering from respiratory diseases and many a times leading to deaths and serious health hazards. Special efforts should be made for educating the general mass and local leaders about the adverse effects of large population and vehicular pollution through information, education and communication (IEC) activities. The air pollution should not be a responsibility of government alone but mass and local leaders should be encouraged to make dedicated efforts to eradicate the air pollution problems.

source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution

Most organisms are in the top layers of soil, usually in the top 2-3 centimetres. Organisms occur to depths of several kilometres below the soil surface.The types of organisms that occur at this depth are not the same as those close to the surface. The organisms in soil are commonly found close to root surfaces, in living roots, in dead roots, on soil particles, or amongst aggregates of soil particles.

Within the top layers of the soil, the earthworms and other soil fauna are able to travel through most parts of the soil. Fungi extend to cover soil particles and aggregates. They can form a mat of hyphae, which can extend to some centimetres or even metres in the soil. Fungi can also grow into soil aggregates and form a network of hyphae inside the aggregate. Bacteria tend to accumulate inside soil aggregates because they are less likely to be eaten by soil animals such as protozoa and mites in this environment. Bacteria can be carried down further into the soil in water that is percolating downwards.

Soils that are clayey often have many bacteria because these soils have lots of small pores which protect the bacteria. On the other hand, Sandy soils with few aggregates are less suitable habitats for bacteria and fungi unless there is lots of organic matter, because in sands the bacteria have fewer small pores to live in.

English inventor Alexander Parkes created the earliest form of plastic in 1855. He mixed pyroxylin, a partially nitrated form of cellulose (cellulose is the major component of plant cell walls), with alcohol and camphor. This produced a hard but flexible transparent material, which he called “Parkesine.” Parkes teamed up with a manufacturer to produce Parkesine; however, they were unable to market it. The material was so strange and new that no one knew how to use it. But later in 1862 he demonstrated the first useable plastic material at great International Exhibition in London.

It’s easy to calculate the age of the Atlantic Ocean, if you can reasonably estimate the rate of seafloor spreading and the present width of the ocean. The Atlantic Ocean is currently about 7,000 km or 7*108 cm. We assume that the average rate at which the plates diverge in the Atlantic Ocean is 5 cm per year, and we make the assumption that this rate has been constant over geologic time. We then apply the familiar equation that release speed, time, and distance:

Time= distance/speed
= 7*108/5 cm/year
= 1.4 * 10 8 years
= 140 million years

Based on these estimates, the Atlantic Ocean is about 140 million years old.

source:Conceptual Integrated Science (HEWLIT,LYONS,SUCHOCKI,YEH)

Global warming is increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s surface, lower atmosphere and oceans.

It is caused by increase in concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere having origin in human activities.

Most of the observed increase in global average temperature is attributed to human-induced greenhouse effect.

The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) have increased by 31% and 149% respectively above pre-industrial levels (1750 AD).

The principal sectors contributing to increase in concentration of green house gases include energy, industry, agriculture and forestry. About three-quarters of man-made emissions are due to fossil fuel burning (coal and oil).

Global average air temperature near the Earth’s surface has risen by 0.74 +/- 0.18o C during the past century.

The average global sea level rose at an average rate of 1.8 mm per year between 1961 to 2003 and by 3.1 mm per year between 1993 to 2003.

Maximum temperature is projected to increase by 2-4o C by the 2050s.

Climate models referenced by the Inter-governmental panel on climate Change (IPCC) project that global surface temperature are likely to increase by 1.1 to 6oC by the end of this century.

An increase in global temperature can cause change in the climate which manifest as follows:

Change in the amount and pattern of precipitation.

Increase in frequency and intensity of extreme weather events (cyclones, heat waves, droughts, floods, etc.).

Receding glaciers.

Reduced summer stream flows.

Decline in agriculture yields.

Increased threat to bio-div ersity.

Increase in incidence of vector-borne diseases (malaria, dengue, etc.).

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.

Drive less, Drive smart-Bike, Bus or Walk.

Switch them off-mobile chargers, computers, and other appliances-when not in use.

Be energy efficient- use CFLs instead of incandescent bulbs.

Plant trees-help sequester atmospheric carbon.

Talk about it- create awareness.

Use jute and cloth bags instead of plastic and polythene.

There are two ways in which bacteria are involved in the formation of soil aggregates. Firstly, bacteria produce polysaccharides which make many points of contact with soil particles producing aggregates. Unlike the polysaccharides produced by plant roots, bacterial polysaccharides resist decomposition long enough to be involved in holding soil particles together in aggregates. Secondly, bacteria develop a small electrostatic charge which attracts to the electrostatic charge on clay surfaces, bringing together small aggregates of soil.

Soil organisms are identified by from their:

• Morphology (their structure and shape)
• Physiology (what happens inside them)
• Genetic characteristics (what sort of genes they have)
• Ecological characteristics (where they live, how they interact with other living things), and
• Molecular characteristics (whether they have particular parts of genes, or proteins or molecules)

Some methods used to assess organisms are:

• Molecular markers (DNA profiles)
• Serological techniques
• Protein and enzyme profiles
• Embedding soil with resin
• Sieving, heating and floating to extract animals
• Artificial media
• MPNs (Most Probable Number technique)
• Baiting techniques
• FAME tests (Fatty Acid Methyl Ester assay)

The constellations are imaginary lines that poets, farmers and astronomers have made up over the past 6,000 years. The purpose for the constellation is to help us tell which stars are which. On a dark night, we can see about 1000 to 1500 stars. Trying to tell which is which is hard. The constellations help by breaking up the sky into more manageable bits. They are used as mnemonics, or memory aids. In addition, there is a standard way to connect the stars that allow astronomers and others who use charts like this to quickly tell what they are looking at.

Earthquakes are usually caused when rock underground suddenly breaks along a fault. This sudden release of energy caused the seismic waves that make the ground shake. When two blocks of rock or two plates are rubbing against each other, they stick a little. They don’t just slide smoothly; the rocks catch on each other. The rocks are still pushing against each other, but not moving. After a while, the rocks break because of all the pressure that’s built up. When the rocks break, the earthquake occurs. 

Mostly soil animals (and microorganisms) occur in the top 5 cm of soil, although some occur at depth. Soil animals may move to lower soil layers when conditions at the surface very severe. Most soil animals occur in the surface layer because this layer contains the most food (carbon and nutrients) in the form of organic matter and other organisms.

According to Henry’s law, gas solubility * in water increases as the temperature decreases. Water droplets at very high altitude with low temperature environment have high solubility for gas. Besides, the small water droplets have very high surface area for gas to dissolve. Hence, water droplets in cloud are saturated with dissolved gases. When the environment temperature decreases to freezing point, gas which is not soluble in snow gets trapped inside and forms tiny bubbles. The size and the distribution of the tiny bubbles are quite uniform due to small droplet sizes and fast freezing rate. Visible light reflected by tiny bubbles gives white colored snow.

The basic physical and chemical processes that lead to the formation of an ozone layer in the earth’s stratosphere were discovered by Sydney Chapman in 1930. In 1970 Prof. Paul Crutzen pointed out that emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O), a stable, long–lived gas produced by soil bacteria, from the earth’s surface could affect the amount of nitric oxide (NO) in the stratosphere. Crutzen then noted that increasing use of fertilizers might have led to an increase in nitrous oxide emissions over the natural background,which would in turn result in an increase in the amount of NO in the stratosphere. Meanwhile, analysis of ozone measurements from the worldwide network of ground based Dobson spectrophotometers led to conclude that the ozone layer was in fact being depleted.

Since graphite was discovered in England, it is most likely that the first pencils were made in England, though this is not known for certain. The pencil was further developed by European craftmen. Some time prior to about 1560, graphite was discovered near Borrowdale, England. The usefulness of graphite as a marking substance was quickly realized. Though the exact date is not known for certain, the year 1565 marks the first record of a pencil consisting of a piece of graphite inserted into a wood shaft, making the first ancestor of today’s pencil.